When is the best time to go to bed…? Citations
Citations cover both the Open Post and the Deep Dive. Where a source underpins content in both posts, this is noted. All citations are formatted in APA 7th edition style. DOIs are provided where available.
1. Circadian Rhythm & the Two-Process Model of Sleep
Foundation sources for the circadian biology and two-process model described in the Deeper Look.
Borbély, A. A., Daan, S., Wirz-Justice, A., & Deboer, T. (2016). The two-process model of sleep regulation: a reappraisal.Journal of Sleep Research, 25(2), 131–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12371 [Deeper Look]
Czeisler, C. A., Duffy, J. F., Shanahan, T. L., Brown, E. N., Mitchell, J. F., Rimmer, D. W., Ronda, J. M., Silva, E. J., Allan, J. S., Emens, J. S., Dijk, D. J., & Kronauer, R. E. (1999). Stability, precision, and near-24-hour period of the human circadian pacemaker. Science, 284(5423), 2177–2181. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5423.2177 [Deeper Look]
Desai, D., Momin, A., Hirpara, P., Jha, H., Thaker, R., & Patel, J. (2024). Exploring the role of circadian rhythms in sleep and recovery: a review article. Cureus, 16. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.61568 [Deeper Look]
2. Chronotype: Biology, Genetics & Age-Related Changes
Sources supporting the discussion of chronotype heritability, age-related shifts, and population variation.
Roenneberg, T., Kuehnle, T., Pramstaller, P. P., Ricken, J., Havel, M., Guth, A., & Merrow, M. (2004). A marker for the end of adolescence. Current Biology, 14(24), R1038–R1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2004.11.039 [Deeper Look]
Roenneberg, T., Wirz-Justice, A., & Merrow, M. (2003). Life between clocks: daily temporal patterns of human chronotypes. Journal of Biological Rhythms, 18(1), 80–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748730402239679 [Open Post & Deeper Look]
Skeldon, A. C., Derks, G., & Dijk, D-J. (2016). Modelling changes in sleep timing and duration across the lifespan: changes in circadian rhythmicity or sleep homeostasis? Sleep Medicine Reviews, 28, 96–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2015.05.011 [Deeper Look]
Montaruli, A., Castelli, L., Mulè, A., Scurati, R., Esposito, F., Galasso, L., & Roveda, E. (2021). Biological rhythm and chronotype: new perspectives in health. Biomolecules, 11(4), 487. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11040487 [Deeper Look]
3. Chronotype, Morbidity & Mortality
Sources for the associations between evening chronotype and adverse health outcomes cited in the Deeper Look.
Knutson, K. L., & von Schantz, M. (2018). Associations between chronotype, morbidity and mortality in the UK Biobank cohort. Chronobiology International, 35(8), 1045–1053. https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2018.1454458 [Deeper Look]
Karan, M., Bai, S., Almeida, D., Irwin, M., Mccreath, H., & Fuligni, A. (2021). Sleep–wake timings in adolescence: chronotype development and associations with adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50, 628–640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01407-1 [Deeper Look]
4. Sleep Regularity, Social Jet Lag & Cardiometabolic Health
Sources underpinning the regularity and social jet lag discussion in the Deeper Look, and the consistency emphasis in the Open Post.
Chaput, J-P., Dutil, C., Featherstone, R., Ross, R., Giangregorio, L., Saunders, T., Janssen, I., Poitras, V., Kho, M., Ross-White, A., Zankar, S., & Carrier, J. (2020). Sleep timing, sleep consistency, and health in adults: a systematic review. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 45(10 Suppl. 2), S232–S247. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2020-0032 [Open Post & Deeper Look]
Roenneberg, T., Allebrandt, K. V., Merrow, M., & Vetter, C. (2012). Social jetlag and obesity. Current Biology, 22(10), 939–943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.038 [Deeper Look]
Qin, S., & Chee, M. W. L. (2024). The emerging importance of sleep regularity on cardiovascular health and cognitive impairment in older adults: a review of the literature. Nature and Science of Sleep, 16, 585–597. https://doi.org/10.2147/nss.s452033 [Deeper Look]
5. Sleep Timing & Cardiovascular Outcomes
Sources for the UK Biobank analysis and other evidence on sleep timing and cardiovascular risk.
Nikbakhtian, S., Reed, A. B., Obika, B. D., Morelli, D., Cunningham, A. C., Aral, M., & Plans, D. (2021). Accelerometer-derived sleep onset timing and cardiovascular disease incidence: a UK Biobank cohort study. European Heart Journal – Digital Health, 2(4), 658–666. https://doi.org/10.1093/ehjdh/ztab088 [Deeper Look]
Chaput, J-P., Dutil, C., & Sampasa-Kanyinga, H. (2018). Sleeping hours: what is the ideal number and how does age impact this? Nature and Science of Sleep, 10, 421–430. https://doi.org/10.2147/nss.s163071 [Open Post & Deeper Look]
6. Sleep Timing, Mental Health & Circadian Disruption
Sources for the associations between circadian disruption, sleep timing, and mental health outcomes.
Walker, W. H., Walton, J. C., DeVries, A. C., & Nelson, R. J. (2020). Circadian rhythm disruption and mental health.Translational Psychiatry, 10(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0694-0 [Deeper Look]
Meyer, N., Lok, R., Schmidt, C., Kyle, S., McClung, C., Cajochen, C., Scheer, F. A. J. L., Jones, M., & Chellappa, S. L. (2024). The sleep–circadian interface: a window into mental disorders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2214756121 [Deeper Look]
Castiglione-Fontanellaz, C., Schaufler, S., Wild, S., Hamann, C., Kaess, M., & Tarokh, L. (2023). Sleep regularity in healthy adolescents: associations with sleep duration, sleep quality, and mental health. Journal of Sleep Research, 32. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13865 [Deeper Look]
Lang, C., Richardson, C., Micic, G., & Gradisar, M. (2022). Understanding sleep-wake behavior in late chronotype adolescents: the role of circadian phase, sleep timing, and sleep propensity. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.785079 [Deeper Look]
7. Sleep Duration Recommendations
Consensus guidelines underpinning the seven-to-nine hour recommendation cited throughout both posts.
Hirshkowitz, M., Whiton, K., Albert, S. M., Alessi, C., Bruni, O., DonCarlos, L., Hazen, N., Herman, J., Katz, E. S., Kheirandish-Gozal, L., Neubauer, D. N., O’Donnell, A. E., Ohayon, M., Peever, J., Rawding, R., Sachdeva, R. C., Setters, B., Vitiello, M. V., Ware, J. C., & Adams Hillard, P. J. (2015). National Sleep Foundation’s sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary. Sleep Health, 1(1), 40–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 [Open Post & Deeper Look]
Watson, N. F., Badr, M. S., Belenky, G., Bliwise, D. L., Buxton, O. M., Buysse, D., Dinges, D. F., Gangwisch, J., Grandner, M. A., Kushida, C., Malhotra, R. K., Martin, J. L., Patel, S. R., Quan, S. F., & Tasali, E. (2015). Recommended amount of sleep for a healthy adult: a joint consensus statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and Sleep Research Society. Sleep, 38(6), 843–844. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.4716 [Open Post & Deeper Look]
8. Adolescents, School Start Times & Sleep
Sources for the discussion of adolescent sleep timing and school start time evidence.
Pifer, G., Ferrara, N., & Kwapis, J. (2024). Long-lasting effects of disturbing the circadian rhythm or sleep in adolescence. Brain Research Bulletin, 213, 110978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2024.110978 [Deeper Look]
Carskadon, M. A. (2011). Sleep in adolescents: the perfect storm. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 58(3), 637–647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2011.03.003 [Deeper Look]
9. Caffeine, Light & Behavioural Factors
Sources supporting the behavioural guidance in the Open Post on caffeine, light, and wind-down habits.
Drake, C., Roehrs, T., Shambroom, J., & Roth, T. (2013). Caffeine effects on sleep taken 0, 3, or 6 hours before going to bed. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 9(11), 1195–1200. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.3170 [Open Post]
Gooley, J. J., Chamberlain, K., Smith, K. A., Khalsa, S. B. S., Rajaratnam, S. M. W., Van Reen, E., Zeitzer, J. M., Czeisler, C. A., & Lockley, S. W. (2011). Exposure to room light before bedtime suppresses melatonin onset and shortens melatonin duration in humans. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 96(3), E463–E472. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2010-2098 [Open Post & Deeper Look]
Notes on This Reference List
Format: All citations follow APA 7th edition style. Author surnames are listed first, followed by initials. Journal titles and book titles are italicised. DOIs are presented as hyperlinks where available.
Verification recommended: All citations should be verified via Consensus (consensus.app), PubMed (pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov), or Google Scholar before use. DOIs can be resolved at doi.org.
Total sources: 21 references across 9 categories.
The New 5-a-Day | Sleep Well 1-2 | Live well. Every day.
